Andrew VunCannon

HIST 4000

Dr. Morrill

Final Paper

America Justified

 

This writer contends that the use of the atomic bomb was necessary in bringing a quick end to fighting in the Pacific and forcing the Japanese to surrender unconditionally, without a full-fledged invasion of the Japan.  While many historians have disputed whether the war with Japan would have soon ended even without the use of nuclear weapons, the fact is the decision to drop the atomic bombs in August 1945 brought fighting to an abrupt end. By avoiding an invasion of Japan, Truman kept thousands of American lives from being put in jeopardy.

Truman’s decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki has been the subject of debate since those fateful days in early August 1945.  Historians on both sides of the dispute have compiled vast evidence to effectively argue whether the decision to use atomic power was justified.

When discussing the use of the atomic bomb during World War II, the object of debate among most historians focuses primarily on what motivated Truman to use these weapons of mass destruction.  On one side of the argument, historians believe the United States’s only purpose for bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki was to bring an abrupt end to fighting with Japan, and in doing so saved lives.  Conservative historians such as Robert James Maddox make this argument. 

In his book Weapons for Victory: The Hiroshima Decisions Fifty Years Later, Maddox advances the thesis that “the official justification for using the bombs was that they saved enormous losses on both sides by avoiding an invasion of Japan.”[1]  Maddox criticizes revisionist historians, seeking to dispel any notion that the United States’s motivation for dropping the bombs was anything other than to end the war in the Pacific quickly.  Maddox specifically attacks those historians who argue the United States chose to use the atomic bomb to intimidate the Soviets or because of anti-Japanese sentiment of Americans following the attack on Pearl Harbor.  Maddox attempts to convince the reader using a wide array of quotations, statistics, memoirs, and letters of those who were substantial figures in the Manhattan Project, World War II, and the decision to drop the atomic bombs.  To strengthen his argument, Maddox begins Weapons for Victory with a quotation made by Dr. Taro Takemi, former president of the Japan Medical Association. This quotation reads: “When one considers the possibility that the Japanese military would have sacrificed the entire nation if it were not for the atomic bomb attack, then this bomb might be described as having saved Japan.”[2]

A polar opposite view of the atomic bomb, and the extreme argument made by conservative historians such as Robert James Maddox, is that of the revisionist historian or conspiracy theorist.  Revisionist historians tend to argue that using “Little Boy” and “Fat Man” on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were unnecessary in ending the war and were the result of the ulterior motives of U.S. leaders, particularly President Truman.  Two of the most noted revisionist historians of the atomic bomb are Ronald Takaki and Gar Alperovitz.

Ronald Takaki, author of Hiroshima: Why America Dropped the Atomic Bomb, is a professor of Ethnic Studies at the University of California at Berkely.  Takaki argues that while the decision to use atomic weapons did bring an abrupt end to fighting in the Pacific, the war would have soon ended without the United States taking such drastic measures.  Takaki advances the thesis that “the decision to drop the atomic bomb was made within a context of immense complexity.  The military need to end the war, the political confrontation with Russia, and the cultural passions of rage crisscrossed dynamically.”[3]

While accepting the reality that the United States’s decision to drop the atomic bomb was at least partially motivated by the military need to end the war, Takaki argues that other factors affected President Truman’s ability to formulate an ethically sound conclusion on the matter.  According to Takaki, Truman’s ultimate decision to use the atomic bombs was largely driven by an attempt to intimidate Russia and the overwhelming presence of anti-Japanese sentiment in America.

Takaki draws on instances of “racialized rage” by Americans towards both the Japanese and Japanese-Americans during World War II to support his argument that hatred for the people of Japan provoked the United States to drop the atomic bomb.  Takaki discusses the creation of two separate wars during World War II, the European War against the Nazi Regime and the Pacific War against the “Japs.”  Takaki also identifies the immense hatred the people of the United States felt toward the Japanese after the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor.  Takaki argues that the air raid on Pearl Harbor on the morning of December 7, 1941 caused many Americans to long for the day when the Japanese would be punished for their actions; this vendetta came in the form of two atomic bombs dropped on Japan in August 1945.[4]

In the writing Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam, the Use of the Atomic Bomb and the American Confrontation with Soviet Power, Gar Alperovitz contends that the reason for using Little Boy and Fat Man on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was not to force a Japanese surrender but rather to make the Soviets “more manageable.”  Alperovitz argues that President Truman postponed calling Japan to surrender until the atomic bomb could be used to intimidate and impress the Soviet Union.  Alperovitz goes so far as to say Truman’s decision to use weapons of mass destruction was in no way motivated by a desire to provide a quick end to the war with Japan.[5]

Even though historians such as Maddox, Takaki, and Alperovitz make extreme arguments in regards to the use of the atomic bomb, most World War II scholars tend to take a more moderate approach to the debate.  Authors such as J. Samuel Walker fall into a category that uses the arguments of both the conservative and revisionist historian.  In his book Prompt and Utter Destruction:  Truman and the Use of the Atomic Bombs Against Japan, J. Samuel Walker states that Truman’s main motivation in using the atomic bomb was to provide an abrupt end to fighting, saving as many American lives as possible.  Unlike the conservative historian Maddox, Walker also believes that other factors played a role in Truman’s decision to use nuclear weapons.  Walker argues that Truman realized the impact that the atomic bomb would have on U.S. - Soviet relations, and that this realization did at the very least play a minimal role in Truman’s decision to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki.  Walker asserts that by demonstrating the ability to both create and use weapons of mass destruction, Truman felt he would gain the upper hand in the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union.[6]

To be able to understand why President Truman chose to use atomic bomb was used to end fighting with Japan it is extremely important to have knowledge of several key aspects of World War II, the atomic bomb, and President Truman.

It is essential that historians of the atomic bomb become familiar with the science behind the bomb.  Many who study the atomic bomb fail to recognize the revolutionary changes that took place in the field of science making the creation of the atomic bomb possible.  A brief introduction into some of the scientists who played key roles in the development of atomic energy and the discoveries they made will assist in understanding the complexity of the atomic bomb.  It is also important to remember that the origin of the atomic bomb rests with people who had no intention of creating weapons of mass destruction, but rather were striving to make advancements in their field of science. 

Henry Becquerel, a French physicist, was the first scientist to discover radioactivity as he was studying phosphorescence in his laboratory.  Becquerel’s father had given him some uranium salts, which after being placed in the light would spontaneously emit light.  One day when there was no light, Becquerel placed the uranium salts on a tray and placed them in a drawer only to find days later that the image of the salts was imprinted onto the tray.  What Becquerel had discovered was spontaneous radiation.[7]

Marie and Pierre Curie learned of Becquerel’s discovery of spontaneous radiation and became very interested in this matter.  While working to extract uranium ore, the two scientists realized that radium and polonium were also radioactive.[8]

Ernest Rutherford was also very influential in the study of the atom and subsequent discovery of atomic energy.  While attempting to bombard gold foil with Alpha particles, Rutherford noticed that some particles were not able to penetrate the foil and bounced back.  From this experiment Rutherford concluded that an atom was made up of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons.  This discovery was the essence of Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom.[9]

Niels Bohr was intrigued by Rutherford’s model of the atom and studied it intensely. Bohr discovered that electrons are located in energy shells surrounding the nucleus and only move from these shells when radiation is either emitted or received.  Bohr also concluded that the nucleus of the atom is shaped like a tear drop, laying the groundwork for the discovery of nuclear fission.[10]

Frederic Joliet and Irene Cure Joliet discovered the possibility of producing radioactive material in their production of a radioactive isotope of nitrogen.  By producing this isotope, Frederic and Irene Joliet suggested that nuclear fission and fusion were possible.[11]

Lise Meitner, a Jewish German physicist, moved to the United States in the 1930’s to escape Nazi persecution and continue her study of the atom.  Meitner thought that the tear drop shaped nucleus of the atom would begin to spin when bombarded.  The spinning nucleus would take the shape of a dumbbell before splitting in half, or producing nuclear fission.  This nuclear fission was accompanied by a release of energy.[12]

Enrico Fermi built upon Joliet-Curie and Meitner’s discoveries, and reached the conclusion that a chain reaction would take place if the nucleus of an atom was bombarded with heavy radioactive elements.  The presence of a chain reaction would result in the release great amounts of energy.[13]

Leo Szilard, a German physicist, understood Fermi’s discovery, realizing the energy produced by the splitting of an element such as uranium could be massive.  He hypothesized that this energy could be used to fuel a very powerful bomb.  Szilard, a Jew, became frightened by the thought of the development of such a powerful weapon by the Nazi regime and pleaded with Albert Einstein to draft a letter to President Roosevelt asking him to ponder the creation of an atomic bomb development program.  After carefully considering the proposal made by Albert Einstein, the world’s most prominent physicist, on behalf of Leo Szilard, President Roosevelt began creating what we now know as the Manhattan Project.[14]

The Manhattan Project was created in August 1942, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.  The mission of the Manhattan Project was to create an atomic weapon that could be used to end World War II.  Roosevelt placed General Leslie Groves from the Army Corps of Engineers in charge of this momentous operation.  Roosevelt had a great deal of confidence in Groves, who had just supervised the construction of the Pentagon to house the offices of the United States Military.  Over the next few months, Groves began to assemble a group of chemists, physicists, and engineers to assist in the building of an atomic bomb.

Groves ordered the creation of secret communities that would be vital to the development of the atomic bomb.  A factory was constructed in Oak Ridge, Tennessee to produce the fuel for the atomic bomb.  Originally called Clinton Engineer Works before being renamed Oak Ridge; workers at this factory were to create nuclear fuel by separating uranium 235 (u-235), a radioactive isotope, from uranium 238 (u-238). Groves also chose Hanford, Washington as a location for the secret community that would house nuclear reactors that could produce plutonium, a radioactive substitute for uranium 235. 

The most famous area of the Manhattan Project was Los Alamos, NM, the headquarters for research and construction of the atomic bomb.  Los Alamos, an isolated town on a mesa near Sante Fe, NM, became the home of the Manhattan Project’s team of scientists for the better part of three years.  The Los Alamos National Laboratories were constructed on the site of what was previously the Los Alamos Boys School.  By the time the atomic bomb was produced, tens of thousands of people were working on the Manhattan Project, while only a very few had any idea they were apart of the creation of the atomic bomb.[15] In total the Manhattan Project cost the U.S. government over two billion dollars.

While Groves was in charge of the production of the bomb, he needed an assistant to head up the scientific portion of the Manhattan Project.  For this position Groves chose a theoretical physicist from the University of California at Berkeley by the name of J. Robert Oppenheimer.  Though very different in all aspects of life, Oppenheimer and Groves worked superbly with each other.  Upon accepting the position of head physicist in charge of turning the theory of fission and chain reactions into a weapon of mass destruction, Oppenheimer began to scour the country for the best scientific minds in the fields of chemistry and physics.  Oppenheimer hand picked a team of scientist from laboratories and universities around the United States, selecting only those at the top of their field for this top secret operation.[16]

After over two and a half years of research and experimentation, the Manhattan Project had a bomb to test.  A site was chosen in Alamagardo, NM to perform Operation Trinity, the first test of the atomic bomb.  At 5:30 am on July 16, 1945 the sky above Alamagordo was filled with a flash of light, followed by a roaring fireball.  Within a few seconds a mushroom shaped cloud rose high above the New Mexico desert.  After much anticipation and concern, the first atomic bomb worked as planned.  The test was a success, leaving a crater in the earth equivalent to the explosion of 20,000 tons of TNT.[17]

While this paper focuses on the dropping of the atomic bomb, ending American fighting in the Pacific; to truly understand the end of the war, it is important to first become familiar with how the United States became involved in a war with Japan. 

December 7, 1941, “A Day that Shall Live in Infamy”.  These are the words uttered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on December 8, 1941 in his now famous speech as he officially declared war on Japan.  December 7, 1941 is the day the United States Naval Fleet based in Pearl Harbor was dive bombed by four groups of Japanese fighters, totaling 181 planes.  At just before 8 am the first wave of Japanese fighter pilots bombarded the U.S. Navy Base at Pearl Harbor.  Within a few short minutes five of the eight battleships stationed in the harbor were sunk.  A second wave of Japanese planes swept through the harbor minutes later, inflicting increased damage on the U.S. Naval Fleet.  The casualty number of this Japanese assault on the United States at Pearl Harbor totaled 2,335 servicemen and 68 civilians killed, with 1,178 wounded. In this number are the 1,104 men who were on the Battleship USS Arizona killed after a 1,760-pound air bomb pierced the ships forward magazine resulting in an explosion of the ship.[18]

With the events of the morning of December 7, 1941, the United States was thrust into the war they had so desperately tried to avoid, and fighting in the Pacific had officially begun.  The bombing of Pearl Harbor enraged many Americans.  A surprise attack of the United States homeland appeared to be more of an atrocity than an act of war.  Many citizens of the United States wanted revenge on Japan for the lives lost at Pearl Harbor; this revenge would evolve into a demand for unconditional surrender of the Japanese to end World War II.   This attack ended much of the isolationist sentiment among Americans and united the nation much like the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Centers in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. did on September 11, 2001.

When scholars debate the decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japan, the central figure in these disputes is President Harry S. Truman.  For one to begin to understand the United States’s decision to drop the atomic bomb, it is very important to have some knowledge of who President Truman was. 

Harry S. Truman was born into a family of dirt farmers from Lamar, Missouri.  Truman followed the family legacy, becoming a farmer before joining the National Guard where he served during World War I.  While serving his country, Harry quickly advanced to the rank of Lieutenant thanks to his uncanny ability to lead. It was at this time that Harry Truman began the transformation from small town dirt farmer, to the President of the United States of America.  Upon returning from the war, Truman decided to try his hand at politics, using connections made while in the military to garner the Democratic nomination for county judge of Jackson County, Missouri.  Running in a district that was overwhelmingly Democratic, Truman won a landslide decision in the election of 1921.

Only twenty-three years later, this small town district judge who had obtained his nomination due to a friendship formed in World War I, was being nominated for the position of Vice President of the United States.  Truman’s untraditional rise through the political ranks was far from over.  As the aging Franklin D. Roosevelt’s vice president, Truman never thought of the prospect that Roosevelt could become sick or die during his term.  While few realized the possibility that Truman could become President, even fewer believed he would be thrust into this role so soon.  After serving as vice president for only 82 days, Harry S. Truman, the Missouri politician, was now President of the United States of America, filling the void left by the sudden death of one of the most remarkable leaders in American history, Franklin D. Roosevelt.[19]

Roosevelt died on the morning of April 2, 1945, during the middle of the greatest war the world has seen, leaving Truman to inherit a mountain of problems that required great diplomacy and swift handling of these issues.  Though inexperienced and unfamiliar with many of the concerns looming overhead, Truman sought wise counsel, “repeatedly relying on the judgment of Eisenhower to provide solutions to the difficult military-related issues.”[20]

From the day Harry S. Truman, a veteran of World War I, became President of the United States, his chief goal was to end the war as quickly as possible.  Truman, a former artillery captain understood exactly what the American troops were facing.  As a soldier, he experienced the full range emotions from fear and sadness to pride and happiness.  Because President Truman could identify with those fighting for the United States, he attempted to implement alternative methods of battle that would protect American soldiers fighting for their country.

The United States’s decision use an atomic bomb to end the war with Japan in August 1945 is a hotly debated topic.  While many dispute whether the United States was justified in using these weapons of mass destruction, few argue the impact this decision has had on the world as we know it. 

The use of atomic weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki is the defining point of the 20th century.  No other single event more accurately portrays the 1900’s socially, politically, economically, and militarily than the one that commanded Brigadier General Paul Tibbits to embark on the now legendary journey from Tinian to Hiroshima with the orders to drop a single bomb that has become commonly known as “Little Boy”.  General Tibbits’s plane, the Enola Gay was accompanied by two observational planes whose sole purpose was to follow closely behind; taking pictures of Hiroshima and the atomic blast that took place as “Little Boy” exploded.

The Enola Gay began its journey from Tinian to Hiroshima at 2:00 am to perform the most important mission of any plane in World War II.  By 7:25 am, the Enola Gay reached Hiroshima, flying at an altitude of approximately 26,000 feet.  At 8:09am, General Tibbits’s reported that visibility was clear over Hiroshima, and that they were ready to drop the bomb.  Seven minutes later at 8:16am, the world changed forever as the “Little Boy” was dropped. This was the first instance that a weapon of this caliber had ever been used in fighting a war.[21]

While the fact stands that the atomic bombs that fell on Japan killed thousands of Japanese civilians at Hiroshima (approximately 70,000) and Nagasaki (approximately 70,000), several key aspects of the Japanese involvement in World War II must be considered  before deciding if the use of these bombs were justified.[22]

In deciding what actions should be taken to provide a quick end to the war with Japan, President Truman was presented with three options.  The first was the bomb and blockade technique used to force a surrender of Germany as the European Front of World War II came to an end.  The second was an invasion of the Japanese homeland that would begin the first phase with an attack of Kyushu in southern Japan on November 1, 1945.  The third alternative at Truman’s disposal, was the use of the secret weapon being constructed in Los Alamos, NM by General Leslie Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer. 

As Truman began to weigh out his options, two of Truman’s goals helped him decide that the most effective way to end the war was to use atomic power.  When Truman took over the role of President, he adopted Franklin Roosevelt’s strategy of bringing the war to an abrupt end while limiting American losses. Roosevelt’s philosophy for fighting and winning the war was given during a radio address on November 2, 1944.  In this commentary, Roosevelt stated: “In winning this war there is just one sure way to guarantee the minimum of casualties - by seeing to it that, in every action, we have overwhelming material superiority.”[23]  The greatest example of “overwhelming material superiority” during World War II was the development of the atomic bomb.[24]

            Truman also announced he would continue the implementation of Roosevelt’s policy of unconditional surrender, much to the avail of the American people.  From the beginning of the war, Roosevelt was determined to prevent the outbreak of a Third World War.  Roosevelt felt that by not forcing Germany to surrender unconditionally following the World War I, it became inevitable that there would be a Second World War  The policy of unconditional surrender was “not meant to enslave the citizens of America’s enemies,”[25] but instead remove military power in Japan, Germany, and Italy.[26] Unconditional surrender was very popular among United States citizens as was evident when a poll was taken in July 1945, 90% of those who responded said they were in favor of the United States continuing the war until the Japanese were “completely beaten.”[27]

While attempting to discover what actions should be taken to bring the Japanese to an unconditional surrender, several ideas were discussed.  Some thought diplomatic measures should be taken to end fighting on terms that satisfied the United States and Japan.  Truman and his advisors looked intently at using diplomacy as a weapon to reach unconditional surrender, but felt this method would draw the war out too long or be completely unsuccessful.  Ultimately, it was decided that the use of military force would be the only way to insure the Japanese surrendered unconditionally. 

            Truman felt that in order to reach an unconditional surrender with the Japanese, conventional bombing and blockading would be the least effective of his options.  The manner in which the Japanese fought and their commitment to the war, could mean that this method could take years to force an unconditional surrender.  When Truman ruled out bombing and blockading he began planning what he had feared for so long, an invasion of the Japanese homeland.  Truman was weary of an invasion due to casualty estimates he had received during the spring of 1945. An invasion of Japan would cost thousands of lives but was the only way Truman perceived an unconditional surrender could be reached.  With Truman’s primary goal being ending the war with a minimum number of casualties, and the risk that an invasion of the Japanese mainland would incur on American soldiers was great, Truman’s only hope for bringing the war to an end was that the weapon being developed in the Manhattan Project would be ready to use before the date set for the invasion of Kyushu: November 1, 1945. 

            On July 16, 1945, President Truman was informed that the first test of the atomic bomb had taken place in a remote location in the New Mexico desert.  The success of the Trinity test in Alamogordo, NM meant Truman, the poker player, had a card in his hand that could force Japan to surrender unconditionally without an invasion of the Japanese homeland.  This card was the atomic bomb.

To better understand what went into Truman’s mind when weighing his options and ultimately deciding to drop the atomic bomb, it is important to analyze the determination with which the Japanese fought.  It is also imperative to address the cost in terms of American lives that an invasion of Japan would bear, casualty estimates given to Truman by his advisors, as well as the excessive loss of lives by Japan and the United States in battles on the islands of Okinawa, Iwo Jima, and Peleliu.  By studying these key battles fought in the Pacific during World War II, the risk that an invasion of the Japanese mainland would entail becomes clear.

The bloodiest battle between the United States and Japan lasted from early April until late July 1945.  These 82 days of horrific fighting took place on the island of Okinawa approximately 350 miles south of the Japanese mainland.  Throughout these almost three months of fighting over 250,000 people lost their lives including nearly one-third of the population of Okinawa.  It is estimated that between April and June 1945 that over 150,000 Okinawans were killed and between one-third and one-half of the civilians who survived this horrendous battle were injured.  The civilian casualties from the  Battle for Okinawa are the second highest of all battles taking place during World War II, with only the Battle of Stalingrad having more.[28]

The soldiers at Okinawa up-held Japan’s military philosophy of fighting to the last man, without surrender, as they had throughout World War II.  Hiromichi Yahara, a Japanese Colonel at Okinawa during World War II, authored a book entitled The Battle For Okinawa.  In this book, Yahara addresses how Japan’s war philosophy “held that Japanese “spirit,” backed by a willingness to die for the Emperor, could overcome any material advantage possessed by an enemy.”[29] This readiness to die for the Emperor was so ingrained in the minds and hearts of the Japanese, that it was not uncommon for soldiers to choose to die rather than to surrender or be captured. 

In late July, the final orders were given in the Battle for Okinawa.  These instructions made by Gen. Ushijima, leader of Japanese forces in Okinawa, were as follows:  “…every man will follow his superior officer’s order and fight to the end for the sake of the motherland…Do not suffer the shame of being taken prisoner.  You will live for eternity.” [30]

It is evident that nearly all Japanese soldiers bought into the “samurai” mentality of war in the way they followed these orders.  Atleast 70,000 Japanese combatants chose to die instead of risking capture and imprisonment.  More than 80,000 Okinawans also died in this three month long battle for their island, many of whom were civilians. In his book, Yahara discusses this principle of death before surrender.  This code of non-surrender has been used since the middle of the Greater East Asia War proclaiming one should “Never surrender to the enemy.”[31] It is because of this code that soldiers and officers alike would commit suicide to avoid the “ultimate shame of capture.”[32]  So many Japanese soldiers believed in the disgrace of surrender that after all fighting ceased on the island of Okinawa, only 10,000 soldiers were taken prisoner.

While the United States did win the Battle for Okinawa, they too faced casualty rates drastically higher than most battles fought in the Pacific.    American soldiers had a 35% casualty rate at Okinawa.[33]  A total of 180,000 marines and soldiers fought in this now infamous battle for an island stretching only 60 miles long.[34] The U.S. Army recorded a great number of casualties as it had 7,163 killed and 30,000 more wounded.[35]

The Battle for Okinawa also marked the greatest loss the United States Navy has ever seen as it lost 36 ships and had another 368 vessels damaged.  The Navy also saw 5,000 of its men die and another 5,000 wounded in this battle that employed more troops than the Normandy invasion.  The battle of Okinawa required 183,000 Allied troops, 327 ships, and 750,000 tons of supplies, even greater than the 150,000 troops, 284 ships, and 570,000 tons of supplies needed at Normandy.[36]

In February 1945, the United States invaded Iwo Jima.  The Battle for Iwo Jima, a tiny piece of land in the Nanpo Shoto chain of islands approximately 750 south of Japan, marks the greatest example of the Japanese willingness to fight to the death.  While being only 4.5 miles long and 2.5 miles wide, Iwo Jima was the only island of the Nanpo Shoto chain that had adequate terrain for a U.S. airfield.  Because the island was small in stature, Lieutenant General Kuribayashi Tadamichi realized that once the invasion had begun, the only weapons, forces, and resources available to him would be those already on the island.  Tadamichi knew the only hope for saving Iwo Jima was to meet the American forces as they first reached the island, and then begin a war of attrition, killing as many Allied soldiers as possible.[37]

Like most other islands nestled in the Pacific, Iwo Jima had an intricate cave and tunnel system running below the earth’s surface.  The Japanese were determined to use these underground installations to their advantage.  The bunkers and pillboxes hidden beneath the ground provided the Japanese with protection from enemy bombardment, safe cover for command centers, and areas to organize their defense against the United States’s invasion.  The tunnels also supplied the Japanese military with the ability to move troops from one end of Iwo Jima to the other without being seen or becoming susceptible to attack.[38]

As the United States launched its invasion, Lieutenant General Kuribayashi soon realized his troops were outnumbered by the 21,000 heavily armored American soldiers.  To prevent his troops from losing focus and becoming discouraged, Kuribayashi placed copies of the “Courageous Battle Vow” which demanded the Japanese defenders to “kill ten of the enemy before dying.”[39]

The Japanese soldiers offered strong opposition to the American invaders, but the superiority of the U.S. military soon overcame the Japanese.  The intense fighting on the tiny island of Iwo Jima took the lives of many American and Japanese troops. On March 2, 1945 alone, 7,127 Japanese soldiers were killed while only thirty-two prisoners were taken.[40]

By the time fighting was over on Iwo Jima 6,821 American soldiers had been killed.  The Japanese casualty count was extremely high as well.  American soldiers counted and buried 13,234 bodies and it is estimated that over 8,000 more Japanese soldiers died. Characteristic of other battles in the Pacific, the United States soldiers were able to obtain very few prisoners, and of the 212 imprissoned, more than 50 were Korean.[41]

The Battle for Peleliu is another supreme example of the difficulty that American soldiers had fighting the Japanese in the Pacific.  Like Okinawa and Iwo Jima, the Battle for Peleliu also carried an alarmingly high casualty rate.  Peleliu is a small island in the Paulaus island chain south of Japan.  Peleliu, though seemingly insignificant because of its diminutive size, was the location of an airfield that would provide American troops with a platform from which to launch attacks upon other islands in the Pacific.  Allied commanders believed an invasion of Peleliu would be very easy, and the island would be captured in just a short time.  American soldiers soon realized the Battle for Peleliu would be no easy task. 

The island of Peleliu, was part of a coral ridge, causing it to have a rough coast line with an abundance of natural caves which provided Japanese troops with excellent bases, protection, venues from which to attack.  Many of these caves were reinforced with concrete to provide increased protection.  Some of the larger caves were even equipped with ventilation systems, electric lighting, telephones, and radio command centers.

As planned, the U.S. troops quickly secured the airfield on Peleliu, their main target for the invasion.   What U.S. military officials had not expected was the difficulty American troops had in clearing Japanese soldiers from the honeycombed caves of Peleliu.  As the Battle for Peleliu came to a halt in late September 1944, the operation that was to be a swift and easy victory for the United States had become one of the bloodiest operations of World War II.  The fighting at Peleliu cost the U.S. greatly. The Battle for Peleliu saw over 1,000 troops killed and 5,000 more wounded in an attack that did little to aid in America’s effort to end the war.[42]

To understand the reasoning behind Truman’s decision to use atomic bombs in lieu of an all out invasion of the Japanese homeland, it is important to take an in-depth look at the Japanese military, its philosophy of war, and the extreme loyalty and commitment in which they fought for their country which is evident in the descriptions of the battles for Okinawa, Iwo Jima, and Peleliu.

The Japanese philosophy of fighting to the bitter end for the sake of the Emperor that was so closely followed throughout island warfare in the Pacific foreshadowed the risk that an invasion of the Japanese mainland would carry.  This idea of fighting to the death made defeating the Japanese very difficult for American soldiers. Fighting an enemy who is indifferent to dying is a difficult and dangerous task. 

Japanese soldiers showed their willingness to die for their country as they frequently turned their own bodies into weapons, participating in what is known as suicide attacks.  The Japanese used the name “Shimpu”[43] in referring to their suicide units during World War II. The “Shimpu” were inspired by the ancient Japanese philosophy of “on”.  “On” is the “obligation and gratitude toward their family and country, and by the traditional Japanese admiration for noble death in a worthy if hopeless cause.”[44]

The most famous of the “Shimpu” were the daring suicide pilots known as “kamikazes”.  The term “kamikaze,” in Japanese means divine wind.  The word “kamikaze” originated in the 13th century as a series of typhoons warded off attempts to invade Japan by Kublai Khan.[45] The kamikaze pilots became idolized by Japanese society as they were “glorified as the supreme expression of the Japanese military spirit.”[46] The kamikaze method of warfare was designed by Onishi Takijiro, Vice Admiral of the Japanese military as conventional methods used by the air force proved to be unsuccessful against the far superior planes and pilots of the United States.[47]

The devotion of the Japanese military was manifested in October 1944 at the Battle of Leyete Gulf, with the emergence of a new tactic of warfare, involving these Kamikaze pilots.  American troops entered this battle never expecting what was about to happen.  As fighting raged on in the Gulf, American troops looked to the sky to see a swarm of Japanese fighters flying directly toward the United States Naval Fleet.  While an attack by the Japanese air force was expected, the manner in which this attack took place was far from anticipated.  As the Japanese planes neared the fleet, rather than bombing the ships as was customary, the pilots flew directly into the side of the U.S. ships.  These attacks were a success, swiftly sinking the U.S.S. St. Louis.[48]

To American sailors who were the target of these suicide air attacks, the kamikazes appeared to be relentless warriors who were motivated by the prospect of giving their lives for the sake of the nation.  “They appeared to be a sort of super-samurai who believed that in dying for the Emperor, they would achieve immortality in some heroes’ paradise.”[49]

Never before had the United States fought an enemy like the Japanese.  Early in the war, the Japanese provided American troops with insight into the ferocious battle they had entered.  The Japanese made it clear that their loyalty to the Emperor and Japan ran so deeply that they considered it an honor to die fighting to protect and preserve their nation.  This allegiance was different from any enemy the United States had ever waged war against.  Evidence of the Japanese commitment can be seen when one considers that: “Five million German soldiers surrendered to the Allies in Europe. In the Pacific, less than 5% of Japanese forces surrendered. They considered it a disgrace to their families, and instead fought to the death.”[50]

The Japanese believed that being taken prisoner, rather than fighting to the death made them a disgrace to their family and nation.  In the event that a Japanese soldier was captured, many would provide American soldiers with false names, to protect the identities of both themselves and their family.[51]

Despite being militarily superior to the Japanese in terms of leadership and weaponry, American soldiers grew to hate fighting the Japanese.  One of the main elements of this dislike was the willingness and passion of the Japanese soldiers to die for their country.  At times it appeared as if the Japanese found pleasure in dying as is evident with the hundreds of kamikaze pilots who were so instrumental in the Japanese war effort.  In May 1943 at a conference of high-ranking Navy officers, it was said that:  “All agree the only way to beat the “Japs” is to kill them all.  They will not surrender to our troops …”[52]

The refusal of the Japanese to surrender and the loss of morale due to the Japanese mentality of fighting became key concerns for President Truman.  Truman knew that in order to save as many American lives as possible, the fighting in the Pacific must end quickly.  With the determination of the Japanese military and their refusal to surrender, Truman realized drastic measure must be taken to force an unconditional surrender of Japan.

The major point of contention among historians regarding the justification of the atomic bomb focuses around casualty estimates for an invasion of the Japanese mainland.  Based on the previous battles in the Pacific it is very difficult to accurately estimate the number of casualties that an invasion of Japan would have cost the United States.  Evidence clearly shows that the estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 casualties as stated by several of Truman’s advisors following the war is inaccurate but to what extent no one knows.  At the time Truman made the final decision to drop the atomic bomb he had received numerous estimates that differed.

Officials from the Army and Navy in a report given to the Joint Chiefs committee, estimated that 132,500 soldiers would be killed, wounded, or missing in the invasion of Kyushu with as many as 25,000 of those becoming fatalities.  This committee went on to predict that another 87,500 casualties would occur as a result of an invasion of Honshu.  Included in this number is an estimated 21,000 deaths.  With these estimates, an invasion of Japan would result in 46,000 dead American soldiers and 174,000 total casualties.  Another estimate that was made but was not given to President Truman came from a commander of the United States Army in the Pacific, General Douglas MacArthur.  MacArthur projected that a total of 118,100 combatant and noncombatants would become casualties if Kyushu was invaded.  The casualty figure officially given by George C. Marshall is one that within the first thirty days of an invasion of Kyushu, American troops would suffer approximately 31,000 casualties.[53]

While casualty estimates were available to Truman prior to his decision to drop the bomb, the fervor in which the Japanese soldiers fought leads one to only guess how long the Japanese would have continued to fight.  The Japanese commitment to fight to the bitter end, surrendering to no one, was strongly upheld in all battles throughout the Pacific.  If the Japanese fought so diligently on the islands surrounding Japan, to what extreme would they go to protect the Japanese mainland?  This is a question that has never been answered.  President Harry S. Truman, when pondering such a question, decided that an invasion of Japan was a risk to great to take.  Although some military officials estimated that as few as 21,000 Americans would die as a result of an assault on the Japanese mainland. This number was in fact only an estimate and could have been significantly greater.[54]

Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bombs on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 and Nagasaki three days later on August 9, 1945 was influenced by a variety of factors.  Truman’s primary goal was to end fighting in Japan quickly, while jeopardizing as few American lives as possible.  When considering whether to use a weapon of mass destruction as a substitute for an invasion of Japan, Truman took into account the casualty estimates given to him by his advisors; the manner in which the Japanese fought in battles for Okinawa, Iwo Jima, and Peleliu; and the philosophy of fighting and refusal to surrender by the soldiers of Japan.  Truman concluded that it was in the best interest for the United States and American soldiers in the Pacific that atomic bombs should be dropped, saving the lives of thousands of American soldiers who would invade Japan.  President Truman was determine to reach his goal of ending the war quickly with minimal American casualties, and the secret weapon of atomic proportions at Truman’s disposal provided just this. 

To summarize, the United States dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to provide a quick end to the war with Japan while forcing the Japanese to surrender unconditionally. While there may have been ways around dropping the bomb that would have still ended fighting in the Pacific before 1946, the decision to use Little Boy and Fat Man ended the war without risking the lives of American soldiers in an invasion of Japan.  Diplomacy may have also ended the war, but it is doubtful diplomatic measures would have forced the Japanese to an unconditional surrender, both Roosevelt and Truman’s goal for the war. 

While it is easy to dispute Truman’s decision to bomb the two cities in Japan, killing thousands of civilians, it is hard to think that many Presidents would have done otherwise.  The atomic bomb was the key to the United States achieving its goals of war; to end the war abruptly with as few casualties as possible while reaching an unconditional surrender of the Japanese.  Dropping the atomic bomb assured many American soldiers that they would not be invading Japan on November 1, 1945 as planned.  Knowing the substantial casualties faced by the United States at Okinawa, Peleliu, and Iwo Jima one can only venture to guess the number of soldiers killed if the Japanese mainland was invaded. 

In deciding to drop the atomic bomb Truman was in a no win situation.  Truman has been scrutinized and condemned for deciding to use nuclear weapons on civilian populations in Japan by many people.  His motivations for dropping these bombs and his character have been questioned by many historians because of his decision to use the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.  Had Truman not used the atomic bomb and the war had continued with additional American lives being lost, Truman would have had to justify not using the weapon he knew would end the war.  Truman would have faced extreme interrogation, answering why he did not use the atomic bomb, letting the war continue and more soldiers die.  Not only would Truman be criticized by the American public, he would also be questioned by Congress as to why he let a nuclear program that cost the United States over two billion dollars to finance go to waste.  With this in mind Truman chose to do what he thought was in the best interest of the United States and that was using the atomic bomb.

            Before condemning Truman or questioning his motives for using the bomb remember, the atomic bomb allowed Truman to accomplish the goals set by the United States upon entering the war: provide a quick end to fighting in the Pacific with a minimum number of American casualties and force Japan to surrender unconditionally.  For this reason, the United States was justified in their decision to use the atomic bombs on Japan in August 1945.